Sequence-specific hybridization of labeled oligonucleotide probes has long been used as a means for detecting and identifying selected nucleotide sequences, and labeling of such probes with fluorescent labels has provided a relatively sensitive, nonradioactive means for facilitating detection of probe hybridization. Recently developed detection methods employ the process of fluorescence energy transfer (FET) rather than direct detection of fluorescence intensity for detection of probe hybridization. Fluorescence energy transfer occurs between a donor fluorophore and a quencher dye (which may or may not be a fluorophore) when the absorption spectrum of one (the quencher) overlaps the emission spectrum of the other (the donor) and the two dyes are in close proximity. Dyes with these properties are referred to as donor/quencher dye pairs or energy transfer dye pairs. The excited-state energy of the donor fluorophore is transferred by a resonance dipole-induced dipole interaction to the neighboring quencher. This results in quenching of donor fluorescence. In some cases, if the quencher (also referred to as an “acceptor”) is also a fluorophore, the intensity of its fluorescence may be enhanced. The efficiency of energy transfer is highly dependent on the distance between the donor and quencher, and equations predicting these relationships have been developed by Förster (1948. Ann. Phys. 2, 55-75). The distance between donor and quencher dyes at which energy transfer efficiency is 50% is referred to as the Förster distance (RO). Other mechanisms of fluorescence quenching are also known including, for example, charge transfer and collisional quenching. In these cases the quencher may be a fluorescent dye but it need not be. Fluorescence quenching mechanisms that are not based on FET typically do not require appreciable overlap between the absorption spectrum of the quencher and the emission spectrum of the donor fluorophore.
Energy transfer and other mechanisms which rely on the interaction of two dyes in close proximity to produce quenching are an attractive means for detecting or identifying nucleotide sequences, as such assays may be conducted in homogeneous formats. Homogeneous assay formats are simpler than conventional probe hybridization assays which rely on detection of the fluorescence of a single fluorophore label, as heterogeneous assays generally require additional steps to separate hybridized label from free label. Typically, FET and related methods have relied upon monitoring a change in the fluorescence properties of one or both dye labels when they are brought together by the hybridization of two complementary oligonucleotides. In this format, the change in fluorescence properties may be measured as a change in the amount of energy transfer or as a change in the amount of fluorescence quenching, typically indicated as an increase in the fluorescence intensity of one of the dyes. In this way, the nucleotide sequence of interest may be detected without separation of unhybridized and hybridized oligonucleotides. The hybridization may occur between two separate complementary oligonucleotides, one of which is labeled with the donor fluorophore and one of which is labeled with the quencher. In double-stranded form there is decreased donor fluorescence (increased quenching) and/or increased energy transfer as compared to the single-stranded oligonucleotides. Several formats for FET hybridization assays are reviewed in Nonisotopic DNA Probe Techniques (1992. Academic Press, Inc., pgs. 311-352). Alternatively, the donor and quencher may be linked to a single oligonucleotide such that there is a detectable difference in the fluorescence properties of one or both when the oligonucleotide is unhybridized vs. when it is hybridized to its complementary sequence. In this format, donor fluorescence is typically increased and energy transfer/quenching are decreased when the oligonucleotide is hybridized. For example, an oligonucleotide labeled with donor and quencher dyes may contain self-complementary sequences that base-pair to form a hairpin which brings the two dyes into close spatial proximity where energy transfer and quenching can occur. Hybridization of this oligonucleotide to its complementary sequence in a second oligonucleotide disrupts the hairpin and increases the distance between the two dyes, thus reducing quenching. See Tyagi and Kramer (1996. Nature Biotech. 14, 303-308) and B. Bagwell, et al. (1994. Nucl. Acids Res. 22, 2424-2425; U.S. Pat. No. 5,607,834). Homogeneous methods employing energy transfer or other mechanisms of fluorescence quenching for detection of nucleic acid amplification have also been described. L. G. Lee, et al. (1993. Nuc. Acids Res. 21, 3761-3766) disclose a real-time detection method in which a doubly-labeled detector probe is cleaved in a target amplification-specific manner during PCR. The detector probe is hybridized downstream of the amplification primer so that the 5′-3′ exonuclease activity of Taq polymerase digests the detector probe, separating two fluorescent dyes which form an energy transfer pair. Fluorescence intensity increases as the probe is cleaved.
Signal primers (sometimes also referred to as detector probes) which hybridize to the target sequence downstream of the hybridization site of the amplification primers have been described for homogeneous detection of nucleic acid amplification (U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,861 which is incorporated herein by reference). The signal primer is extended by the polymerase in a manner similar to extension of the amplification primers. Extension of the amplification primer displaces the extension product of the signal primer in a target amplification-dependent manner, producing a double-stranded secondary amplification product which may be detected as an indication of target amplification. Examples of homogeneous detection methods for use with single-stranded signal primers are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,550,025 (incorporation of lipophilic dyes and restriction sites) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,867 (fluorescence polarization detection). More recently signal primers have been adapted for detection of nucleic acid targets using FET/fluorescence quenching methods which employ unfolding of secondary structures (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,691,145 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,928,869). Partially single-stranded, partially double-stranded signal primers labeled with donor/quencher dye pairs have also recently been described. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,846,726 discloses signal primers with donor/quencher dye pairs flanking a single-stranded restriction endonuclease recognition site. In the presence of the target, the restriction site becomes double-stranded and cleavable by the restriction endonuclease. Cleavage separates the dye pair and decreases donor quenching. U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,047 (incorporated herein by reference) describes a detector nucleic acid comprised of two complementary oligonucleotides that are hybridized to form a duplex. One of the oligonucleotides is longer than the other and contains a single-stranded tail sequence capable of binding target sequences. The two oligonucleotides also comprise a fluorophore/quencher dye pair such that when the two oligonucleotides are hybridized to each other fluorescence remains substantially quenched, because fluorophore and quencher remain in close spatial proximity. Hybridization of a target sequence to the single-stranded tail of the longer oligonucleotide enables a polymerase-mediated displacement of the shorter oligonucleotide from the longer one, resulting in separation of quencher from fluorophore and a corresponding increase in fluorescence of the sample.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,379,888 (incorporated herein by reference) also discloses a signal primer comprised of two complementary oligonucleotides that are hybridized to form a duplex with one of the oligonucleotides containing in addition a single-stranded tail capable of binding target sequences. In this case, however, the shorter of the two oligonucleotides contains both a fluorophore and a quencher which are held spatially apart when the shorter oligonucleotide is hybridized to the longer, unlabeled oligonucleotide. Hybridization of a target sequence to the single-stranded tail of the longer oligonucleotide triggers a polymerase-mediated displacement of the shorter oligonucleotide. Upon displacement, the shorter oligonucleotide adopts a conformation that brings the fluorophore and quencher into close proximity so fluorescence decreases in the presence of target. U.S. Pat. No. 5,866,336 describes use of a fluorescently labeled hairpin on an amplification primer in PCR. The 3′ end of the hairpin primer hybridizes to the complement of a non-target sequence appended to the target by a second primer. In this system, the hairpin primer plays an integral part in amplification of the target sequence and must be extendible. In contrast, in the present invention it is not necessary for the reporter probe to be extendible, as it does not participate in amplification of the target sequence but generates signal in a separate series of reaction steps which occur concurrently with target amplification. In further contrast, the signal primers of the invention hybridize to an internal sequence of the target (i.e., between the amplification primers), so that the signal generation reaction detects a subsequence of the target, not the amplification product itself.
Detecting and identifying variations in DNA sequences among individuals and species has provided insights into evolutionary relationships, inherited disorders, acquired disorders and other aspects of molecular genetics including predisposition to infectious or non-infectious disease and prediction of therapeutic efficacy. Analysis of sequence variation has routinely been performed by analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) which relies on a change in restriction fragment length as a result of a change in sequence. RFLP analysis requires size-separation of restriction fragments on a gel and Southern blotting with an appropriate probe. This technique is slow and labor intensive and cannot be used if the sequence change does not result in a new or eliminated restriction site.
More recently, PCR has been used to facilitate sequence analysis of DNA. For example, allele-specific oligonucleotides have been used to probe dot blots of PCR products for disease diagnosis. If a point mutation creates or eliminates a restriction site, cleavage of PCR products may be used for genetic diagnosis (e.g., sickle cell anemia). General PCR techniques for analysis of sequence variations have also been reported. S. Kwok, et al. (1990. Nucl. Acids Res. 18:999-1005) evaluated the effect on PCR of various primer-template mismatches for the purpose of designing primers for amplification of HIV which would be tolerant of sequence variations. The authors also recognized that their studies could facilitate development of primers for allele-specific amplification. Kwok, et al. report that a 3′ terminal mismatch on the PCR primer produced variable results. In contrast, with the exception of a 3′ T mismatch, a 3′ terminal mismatch accompanied by a second mismatch within the last four nucleotides of the primer generally produced a dramatic reduction in amplification product. The authors report that a single mismatch one nucleotide from the 3′ terminus (N-1), two nucleotides from the 3′ terminus (N-2) or three nucleotides from the 3′ terminus (N-3) had no effect on the efficiency of amplification by PCR. C. R. Newton, et al. (1989. Nucl. Acids Res. 17:2503-2516) report an improvement in PCR for analysis of any known mutation in genomic DNA. The system is referred to as Amplification Refractory Mutation System or ARMS and employs an allele-specific PCR primer. The 3′ terminal nucleotide of the PCR amplification primer is allele specific and therefore will not function as an amplification primer in PCR if it is mismatched to the target. The authors also report that in some cases additional mismatches near the 3′ terminus of the amplification primer improve allele discrimination.